Philosophers of Ionia: THES OF MILETO (624-546 approx.)
'Not man but water, is the reality of things', Tales de Miletus
As Nietzsche pointed out that the passage of Tales was fundamental since it marked a turning point from which one began to believe in nature at least, one believed in the nature of water. “ As a mathematician and as an astronomer, he was hospitable to everything mythical and allegorical, and if he reached the pure abstraction of 'everything is one' and formulated a phusic expression, he became an exception among the Greeks of his time” F. Nietzsche, Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks (1932)
Aristotle clearly states that for Tales, water is the principle (arché) of all things, although little is known what Tales might actually say. You might think it meant that all things are made up of water or that the earth comes from water and that above water floats.
Possibly, these ideas have their origin in Egyptian and Babylonian mythology and are based on observation.
Another of the famous claims of such is that all things are 'full of gods', the most widespread interpretation of this is that this physis, which is water, is endowed with its own life and movement; therefore, everything is alive and lively.
ANAXIMANDER DE MILETO (610-545 approx.)
Anaximandro, makes a remarkable breakthrough with respect to Tales: The principle of all things (arché) is the apex that is, “the indefinite, the indeterminate”. It is therefore a non-empirical element and because of its indefinite character it allows to explain the origin of things better than through a given element.
“ The principle (arché) of all things is the apex. Now, from where he has created for things, there is also destruction, according to necessity; in fact, they pay the blame to one another and the reparation of injustice according to the course of time.” Anaximandro de Mileto, Fr . I
It is often discussed whether Anaximandro conceived the idea of 'inumerable worlds' successive temporarily. But most likely, the idea is that the pace of emergence and disappearance took place within the same world.
There are those who interpret Anaximandro meant that all individual existence and all becoming are nothing but a usurpation, an injustice that must be paid by death. (In this interpretation there is a certain parallel with Ionian with Buddhist doctrines.) But probably, Anaximander wanted to be lucky that from the apex you begin to separate opposing substances from each other and when one prevails over the other, there is a reaction that sets the balance. The cycle of seasons would exemplify the concept.
The apex is 'immortal and indestructible', i.e. 'eternal and not aging'. Anaximander, then attributes to him the characters that Greek mythology otrogated to the gods. Hence, the merit of a cosmology that does not depend on mythical representations stands out from Anaximandro.
MILETO ANAXIMENS (585-524)
Air differs from different substances by virtue of rarefaction and condensation. By the rarefaction it becomes fire; instead condensing it becomes wind, then cloud and even more condensed, into water, later on earth and finally into stone” Anaximenes according to Theophrastus.
In fact, Anaximenes conceives the world as living.
Heraclitus of Ephesus (544-484 approx.)
“ This world, the same for all beings, has not been created by any of the gods or men, but has always been, is and will be eternally living fire, which is kindled with measure and extinguished with measure.” Fr. 30
Following the Ionian philosophical tradition, Heraclitó sees in a certain element, the arché of the universe. In this case, the elment is fire.
For Heraclitus, not only do individual things come out of the fire and return to it, but the whole world perishes in the fire and then reborn. Here is the image of the “cosmic cycle” already pointed out by Anaximander, that is, the ancient Greek idea of “eternal return” (which will reappear with Plato and the Stoics), as well as the idea of a universal “judgment”. There is probably a certain influence of Caldeo-Babylonian astronomy.
But the most transcendent contribution of Heraclitus is not this doctrine of fire but his ideas regarding contradiction and Logos. Everything is therefore in constant motion because the world was permanently:
“ It is not possible to descend twice to the same river, touch twice a deadly substance in the same state, but by the momentum and speed of changes it dispers and again it gathers and comes and disappears.” Fr. 91
Heraclitus does nothing but take as a starting point a data that comes from experience. Preposing that for Heraclitus there is no more than “becoming” and not “being”, is something that cannot be justified from his texts.
Heraclitus takes to an extreme the Ionian doctrine of opposites: contradiction and discord are at the origin of all things:
“ War is the father and king of all things” Fr. 53
But contradiction generates harmony.
“ Although Logos is common, most live as if they possess their own intelligence. Even if they listen you don't understand. The proverb applies to them: Present but absent. The Logos is eternal, not understood by men when they hear it for the first time or after they have heard it. Those who watch have a unique and common cosmos; those who sleep return to their own and particular” Fr.2,34,1,89
Contradiction engenders aromony because there is a single law that governs the universe, which unifies and guides everything. In this sense, the idea of Heraclitus is very bold: to affirm that the Logos or universal reason is also in man constituting his own reason. Thus, an idea appears that will be repeated many times throughout the history of philosophy: the real order coincides with that of reason, the same law or reason, governs the world and the human mind.
The life of Pythagoras is wrapped in legends. He was born in Ionia on the Isle of Samos around 572 BC where he apparently would have met Anaximandro of Mileto. According to tradition, he is attributed trips to Egypt, Babylon (where he would meet Zoroastro founder of the Persian dualist religion see mythology_irani -) and even India.
The tyranny of Polícrates caused him to leave Samos, moving to Italy and settling in Crotone. There he founded a religious philosophical sect in which men, women and children live in community of goods, maintaining a rigorous asceticism and keeping secret about the professed doctrine.
His influence on Crotone is enormous and several legend s arise: Pythagoras is considered son of Apollo (see Greek -Roman mythology), he is attributed different miracles, as he is able to remember his previous reincarnation is. The sect by its secret and aristocratic character and its influence on the city, won the enmity of the people and a popular revolt expels the Pythagorics.
Pythagoras had to take refuge in Metapongo, where he died shortly afterwards, probably in 496. Later, the sect managed to return and re-establish its influence in the cities of Greece Magna, until the democratic movement in the second half of the fifth century dispersed them again.
It is difficult to determine which doctrines go back to Pythagoras himself and which to his followers, since they were accustomed to attribute them to their teacher. Among the best known Pythagorists we remember: Alcmeón, Fiolao and Eurito.
The doctrine of the transmigration of souls (in which remarkable similarities with orphism are observed) and consequently, assertion that there is a kinship among all living beings, (it seems that Pythagoras believed in the possibility of reincarnating in a plant and not only in animals); belief in an eternal return of the same events in closed cycles. In addition, Pythagorics practiced numerous rules of abstinence (abstinence from meat, which apparently would be explained by kinship with other living beings), as well as various ritual and moral norms.
For the Pythagorists, science was closely linked to mysticism.
Aristotle explains that this doctrine is based on empirical discoveries, for example, on the fact that the musical intervals between the notes of the lyre can be expressed numerically. But in addition, it seems that the Pythagorics conceived the numbersspatially, confusing the geometric point with the arithmetic unit. Units therefore have spatial extension and can be considered as the material element of things. This way, if things are composed of numbers it is because they are composed of aggregations of units-points. This interpretation only corroborates something known: the Greeks had some difficulty in conceiving any reality without spatial extension (Plato will first achieve this achievement, and then it will be followed by Aristotle). This is considered the most likely interpretation of which number is the arché of all things.
The dualism seems to be the most characteristic feature of Pythagorean doctrine and could explain the origin of the tradition that brings Pythagoras into contact with Zoroaster (see mitologia_irani). However, dualism and numeral doctrine coincide in the first opposition (limit-ilimated) with the second (odd) which constitutes “the elements of the number”.
This dualism is but one more version of the doctrine of opposites that appears in the Jonian philosophers. The difference is that this time it takes on the importance of essential doctrine and leads to artificial elaborations such as the list of ten pairs of opposites (see next post).
It also implies a doctrine of harmony:
“ Indeed, things like and related to each other have no need for harmony, but those that are dissimilar and distinct need to be brought together by this harmony, by which they can meet in the cosmos. Because harmony is unity of mixtures and concordance of discordances”Philolao, Fr. 6 and 10
limit - unlimited
odd - even
one - multiple
Right - left
Male - female
static - moving
straight - curved
light - dark
good - bad
square - oblong
There are various doctrines that converge in a global explanation of the cosmos. In general, statements of difficult interpretation abound.
It is said that first there existed Unity (understood as “limit” or “limited”) surrounded by the unlimited. Then the unit grows and is divided into two; the emptiness of the unlimited is inserted in the middle and keeps the two parts separate: in this way, the number 2 and the line arise. Then the number 3 is generated... and the triangle (the simplest flat figure) and with the 4 of the tetrahedron (the simplest solid)...
The world is described as a cosmos in harmony that is more intelligible and anticipates the doctrines of Copernicus: the cosmos is the sphere in which there is an original fire. Next, come the celestial bodies: the “anti-earth” (added to complete the number of 10 planets), the earth, the moon, the sun, the five planets and the sky of fixed stars. A sphere of fire envelops this set. The movement of the Celete spheres produces wonderful music, which humans cannot hear because they are accustomed to it from birth. Music and harmony that can be translated into numbers... is the vision of the universe of a school that knew how to reconcile mysticism and mathematics.
“ Well, I will tell you, listen carefully to my word, which are the only paths of research one can think of: what is and which is not possible to be, is the path of persuasion - it accompanies, indeed, the truth -; the other, which is not and which is necessary not to be.
I will show you that this path is completely inscrutable; you will not know what it is (because it is inaccessible), nor will you show it.
Well, the same is thinking and being thought.” Fr. 2-3
The school of Elea was traditionally attributed to Xenophanes of Colofon, who would have settled in Elea, after emigrating from Italy. There, he would have had as disciples Parmenides and others. But this is uncertain information, most likely, Parmenides himself was the founder of the school.
Parmenides lived in Elea and participated in the drafting of the laws of his city. And it is possible that his initiation to philosophy has been through the Pythagorics.
Probably inspired by oracular and mysteric literature, the poem with which Parmenides begins (quoted at the beginning of this post) suggests that the content that follows it should be considered philosophical “revelation.”
The fundamental core of the poem is divided into two parts:
The path of truth (in which he exposes his own philosophical doctrine)
The way of opinion (doxa), in which using some elements possibly of Pythagoric origin, is exposed a cosmology criticized as “misleading”.
Parmenides therefore aims to build the path of truth. And thus, he will deduce that the Self (“what is”) is inferred and imperishable; finite, continuous and unique; indivisible and immobile.
Indeed, the being is imperishable and uncreated because otherwise it should be assumed that it comes from the non-being and returns to it; but the non-being is unthinkable and non-existent. Similarly, the Being is “one”, for if there was anything else it would be the non-being. And also motionless, because any change would be towards the non-self. And indivisible, since the void that would separate the parties would be equilvanete to the non-being.
It is a remarkable exercise of logic, thus marking a distance from the first Jonian philosophers who spoke of “beings” seeking an arché of concrete and even empirical character.
Parmenides' logic is not too convincing since it only handles two opposite concepts: Being and Non-Being. Then, what did he really mean?
First, it can be interpreted that the aim was to demolish the philosophy of its predecessors, especially the Pythagorean school. In this line, it is possible to understand the negation of emptiness, time and plurality. Change and movement are considered illusory. The attack is punctual against Pythagorical dualism, admitting as attributes of the Self only the attributes listed in the left column of the Pythagorean enumeration (see previous posts).
The Being to which Parmenides refers is the Reality or, the World. And paremenides could not conceive it but as something corporeal (the distinction between the material and immaterial does not yet exist. The world is somewhat limited, compact, unborn and enduring, excluding any possibility of change and movement. It's like “a well-round sphere”, motionless and eternal.
Finally, it is observed that in an explicit way, the distinction between truth and appearance (or opinion) is introduced and the primacy of reason (what can be thought) is given over sensitive and misleading appearances.
The presocratics can be divided into two groups: supporters of monism and those close to pluralism.
While the first philosophers can be considered monists since they sought the archéinto a single element (except clearly dualistic Pythagorics), those who followed are considered pluralist since they would no longer search for a single element (which by transforming it gives rise to everything) but a multiplicity of these that combine with each other give rise to a multiple and mobile universe.
For empedocles, reality is coprimed as a sphere, which suggests that it starts from Parmenides' conception.
The sphere of Empedocles equals the Being of Parmenides, although unlike the latter, it does not deny the value of appearances because for him, there is movement and there is plurality of beings. What it does is introduce within the sphere the variety: inside it are the four elements:
water
atmosphere
light
land
It could then be said that having been inspired by Tales, Anaximenes and Heraclitus, he adds a third element (the earth). Each of these elements is eternal and imperishable, but when mixed together they give rise to the diversity of beings and changes that are observed in the world.
The mixture of the elements is produced by two cosmic outings: love and hatred . They are forces that are also found in man and that in explaining in his struggle everything that happens, determine Empedocles' tragic vision of existence:
These elements never cease their continuous change. Sometimes they unite under the influence of Love, and in this way everything becomes the One; other times they disintegrate by the hostile force of Hate (...) and have an unstable life (...)
This same two-force combat is clearly seen in the mass of the mortal limbs. Sometimes, by the effect of love, all the members of the body gather together in unity, at the peak of flourishing life. But other times, separated by cruel hatred, they wander their side through the pitfalls of existence.” Fr. 17-20
The theory of the four elements that must be in harmony allows us to develop a conception of health, which will have wide repercussions in later Greek medicine.
Using other terms Empedocles considers man a microcosm, a kind of microcopic world (since it contains the same elements) and this allows him to formulate an explanation of knowledge by “sympathy”: “the like knows the like”. Thus, the emanations that come from things enter through the pores of the human body, going to find what is like in it:
“ We see the earth by the earth, the water by the water, the divine air by the air and the destructive fire by the fire. We understand love for love and hate for hate.” Fr. 109
Like that of Empédocles, his philosophy starts from the ideas of Parmenides, reaching a relatively similar solution. Since the “being” cannot begin or appear, and since the “one” has to be considered immutable, Anaxagoras, which admits plurality and mobility, as well as changes and transformations of reality, formulates a pluralist theory All that occurs and happens is the result of the mixing of innumerable elements.
Nothing comes into existence or is destroyed, but everything is the result of mixing and division Fr.17
Anaxagoras calls these elements or principles by the name of “seeds”, which are qualitatively distinct and indefinitely indivisible. In all things there are seeds of all things, so that “everything is in everything”. Thus it is explained that anything can become different, and that if one thing is what it is, it is because in it the corresponding seeds predominate: in gold the seeds of gold predominate, but there are also all the others (which is possible because the seeds are tiny).
Plurality and changes (generation, corruption, transformation) are explained by the mixing and disintegration of seeds. The world originates through a whirlwind in which mixes and separations are made progressively. But this whirlwind movement had to be explained, since Parmenides seemed to have shown that, in itself, the Sphere remains still and motionless: Anaxagoras will be forced to introduce a “principle of movements”, which he gives the name of Nous (Spirit, intelligence). The Nous is something separate from the seed mass and therefore nothing limits it, possesses autonomy, knows everything and has maximum power.
The starting point is the element atomism that is also present in the plants of Parmenides, as Aristotle points out:
Some ancient philosophers believed that what it is must be necearily one and motionless; for being the void non-entity, there could not be movement without a vacuum separated (from matter), nor could there be a plurality of things without something separating them (...) But Leucipus thought he had a theory that, in accordance with the perception of the senses, did not disappear birth, corroption, movement or plurality of beings.” (Aristótles, on generation and corruption)
Leucipus, apparently, although there are those who doubt his existence, would have been the master of Democritus. In this line, it is observed that the approach is similar to that already appears in Empédocles and Anazagoras: saving the appearance of the world, this is its movement and plurality, saving the value of sensitive experience, but still respecting the principles of eleatism. The solution sought differs this case in one aspect: to admit that emptied or “not to be” and to deny all kinds of distinct outings in the matter .
The world consists of infinite indivisible particles (atoms) that are solid, full, immutalbes, so that atom atom atom has the characteristics attributed by Parmenides to the “being”.
But unlike this one, for Democritus, atoms are infinite in number. On the other hand, atmos lack sensitive cavities and are distinguished only by figure (A differs from B), order (AB differs from BA) and position (A differs from Z).
Atoms possess their own spontaneous movement in all directions and collide with each other. The shock can have very different consequences: either they bounce and separate, or they “hook” with each other, thanks to their diverse figures. Then, whirlwinds of atoms originate infinite, begotten and perishable worlds.
Atoms explain in this way the multiplicity of beings, movement and generation, destruction. But a second principle is needed: emptiness (or non-being). Void is what explains multiplicity, because it is what separates atoms; and it explains movement, because if there is no void there can be neither shocks nor displacements.