“ With Voltaire ends a world. With Rousseau begins another” Goethe
Rousseau, despite being a contributor to the Encyclopedia, was the great dissident. In 1749, in the competition of the Dijon Academy on the theme Has the progress of science and the arts contributed to the improvement of customs? , his answer was no, since science and arts originate in vices, feed them and are the source of inequality among men. This problem was the trigger of his thinking.
The ideas of Rousseau were openly opposed to those of the French Enlightenment, since it devalued culture, reason and society in favor of man in the natural state. His appreciation of sentiment was also scandalous. Similarly, their political ideals were controversial. However, his ideas were extremely successful and he was the enlightened one who influenced the future revolutionaries most.
Consturated on the structure of the transition from the natural state to the state of society, Rousseau's thought proposes a utopian return to the first stage without abandoning the second stage, while abandoning it is no longer possible.
The 'natural' (primitive) man lived in isolation. Rousseau speculates that he lacked a natural sociability. Unlike Hobbes, he doesn't think he lived in war against everyone either. It introduces the image of the “good savage”, a kind of natural innocence (there is no original sin), goodness is innate as well as absolute equality. There's no morale either. But this natural condition belongs to a state that no longer exists (perhaps it has never existed, it will not ever exist) but it is useful to reflect on the current situation. The concept of nature serves as a reference point and a management concept.
Man becomes less happy, less free and less good. The idea of progress is clearly attacked. As society appears, man begins to lose freedom and inequalities begin to gain ground when the right to property and the authority to safeguard it are established. So society is a hoax, men are supposed to unite to defend the weak, but in reality what they do is defend the interests of the rich. The differences are clear: richly poor; powerful-weak; slave-loving. Coincience is the only unstoppable redoubt, although almost ignored. Man, apart from himself, is alienated.
The first step is the transformation of the individual through education. In El Emilio the boy is educated with his mentor as the “good savage” reproducing Robinson's experience (1719 novel) discovering for himself the best of culture. Through his utopian educational program, Rosseau criticizes enlightened education.
What follows is the transformation of society. The program of the Social Contract is based on the establishment of “a form of association (...) whereby everyone, by joining everyone, does not obey, however, more than himself and is as free as before” Rousseau
It is therefore a new form of social contract that gives man back his' natural 'status without leaving him to belong to a community. It is not, as Hobbes wants, a contract between individuals, nor of individuals with a governor, as Locke proposes: it is a covenant of the community with the individual and of the individual with the community. Each of the partners joins each and none in particular.
This pact creates the general will that is neither arbitrary nor confused with those with the sum of the selfish wills of the individual wills of the individuals. Then the concept of sovereigntyappears, the sovereign is the general will, which is inalienable (itis not delegated, the government is but an executor of the law emanating from the general will, and can always be replaced), is indivisible (there is no division of powers, as Locke and Montesquieu postulate.
Rousseau understands thus simultaneously establishing popular sovereignty and individual freedom. Because, in making a contract with the community, each individual is also making a contract with himself, while obeying the “general will”, he is following his own will.
The Social Contract will inspire the French revolutionaries in 1789, the commune of 1870 and the Communists of the 19th century. He also inspired Jefferson (1826), author of the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America.
Rousseau is the most significant figure in the Political Counter-Enlightenment. His moral and political philosophy was inspiring for Immanuel Kant, Johann Herder, Johann Fichte, and G. W. F. Hegel, and from them it was transmitted to the collectivist Right.