Leibniz (1646-1716)

Leibniz's thought is clearly eclectic. In his work, criticism of Descartes and Spinoza can be found in order to discard those aspects difficult to reconcile in a synthesis that fueled scholastics and Cartesianism.

The unity of spirits

Conditioned by the historical context (a “balance of forces” was sought in Europe, based mainly on conflict), the unity of spirits, respecting their plurality, will be a central concern of Leibniz's philosophical project. The new order he proposes is based on the idea of harmony in which conflicting interests can be mutually complementary. Like Descartes and Spinoza, he proposes a unification of all sciences, but his intention goes further: the unification of science will open the way to the unification of spirits

Rationalism

Leibniz's method also has the deductive-mathematical cracteristics characteristic of rationalism. The objective of its mathematization is to analyze complex terms to reach more simple and indefinable ones, which would be symbolized to the point of creating a universal language that (being used by clear deductive rules) would prevent the emergence of new theories.

Innatism

Contrary to Locke will try to prove the existence of innate ideas. According to his philosophical project, these ideas would be the “seeds” that would make it possible to reach an agreement among all men.

Monadology

The doctrine of the monad, nullifies the distinction envisaged by Descartes regarding extension and thought and proposes an infinite multiplicity in the universe. It will then be said that, having multiple compound substances, each of them consists of other substances.

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“ Each portion of matter can be conceived as a jaridn full of plants and a pond full of fish. But every branch of a plant, every member of an animal, every drop of its moods, is still a garden or a pond...”

Leibniz criticizes the Cartesian concept of “body” or corporeal substance. Instead, it postulates that compound substances are divisible. However, this divisibility is not infinite, when it reaches its last elements or parts already indivisible, there is no extension, no figure, no divisibility. These simple elements are also substances (atoms of Nature), i.e. units: monads.

Monads are therefore primitive forces, simple, inextensiveand impenetrable, and therefore activity is internal and “soul”. It could therefore be said that every monad is a “soul”, although in most monads the misconception is not conscious because there is a multitude of small perceptions and a general state of “blunting”. Consciousness (along with feeling and memory) will appear in animals and in man, there will also be reason and self-awareness.

Harmony

Unlike Spinoza Leibniz will not see in this world a necessary world but one of the many possible conceiving in the divine mind. It is not possible, therefore, to deduce the existence of the world, it is something contingent (not necessary), and a truth “in fact”. It is not feasible to explain why it is so and not otherwise. Then, of all possible worlds, God chooses “the best.”

Absolute optimism

By conceiving the world as “the best possible”, it is reasonable to expect that the most perfect harmony should reign in it.

And in this world in perfect harmony, spirits can find even greater harmony insofar as they are also “images of divinity and able to know the system of the universe.”

por Graciela Paula Caldeiro